Mr. Dostert's Domain
European Expansion
The Italian Renaissance
During the Middle Ages European society and culture was devoted to Christianity. The Church, which taught Christians to endure suffering while they awaited their rewards in heaven, dominated virtually every aspect of life from schools to government. The Church encouraged people to seek salvation through good works and a life free from sin. Individualism and creativity were not highly valued within society. For most, life revovled around the collective systems and communities of their feudal manor. They did not know much of their world outside, and literacy was a luxury for the rich. Suddenly, beginning in the fourteenth century, an explosion of creativity in art, writing, and thought erupted to redefining European culture. This Renaissance changed how Europeans saw themselves and the world.
Italy's Place in the Renaissance
The Renaissance translates as "rebirth," and in this context, it refers to a revival of art and learning that had waned during the Middle Ages. The educated men and women of Italy hoped to bring back to life the culture of classical Greece and Rome. Yet in striving to revive the past, the people of the Renaissance created something new.
The Renaissance eventually spread from northern Italy to the rest of Europe. Italy had three advantages that made it the birthplace of of the Renaissance:
-
Thriving Cities
-
a Wealthy Merchant Class
-
History
Overseas trade, spurred by the Crusades, had led to the growth of large city-states in northern Italy. The region also had many large towns making Italy much more urban than the rest of Europe. In these urban centers a merchant class developed who unlike nobles had wealth but lacked titles which could be inherited. As a result, to succeed merchants had to use their wits. In the late medieval period these merchants rose to power and began to believe that they deserved power and wealth because of their individual merit. This competitive nature led to the growth of individualism in Europe. No longer was the community's success central to identity, instead individuals sought their own achievement and rewards.
Furthermore, Renaissance scholars looked down on the art and literature of the Middle Ages. Instead, they wanted to return to the learning of the Greeks and Romans. They achieved this in several ways. First, the artists and scholars of Italy drew inspiration from the ruins of ancient Rome that surrounded them. Second, Western scholars studied ancient Latin manuscripts that had been preserved in monasteries. Third, Christian scholars in Constantinople fled to Rome with Greek manuscripts following the Turkish invasions and fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. These sources provided scholars with knowledge which Italian elites used to rebuild their society.
Humanism
Renaissance scholars studied the classical texts of Greece and Rome leading to the development of humanism. Humanism was an intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievements. Instead of trying to make classical texts agree with Christian teaching as medieval scholars had, humanists studied them to understand Greek values. Humanists influenced art by mimicing classical styles and encouraging artists to depict people who have mastered their potential. This meant that figures were realistic, muscular, and often nude because the belief was that the human form was beautiful and art is about capturing
beauty. Renaissance artists often
portrayed religious subjects but used
perspective to give depth to their art
making them seem three dimentional to
the human eye. Humanist architects also
copied the styles of ancient Rome, building
great columned buildings as well as great
domed buildings such as il Duomo di
Firenze. Art became a central part of
culture as a mode for expression and a
statement about humanity.
Humanists also popularized the study of subjects common to clasical education, such as history, literature, and philosophy rather than theology as medieval scholars had. These subjects became known as the humanities. Scholars read books in these topics and began viewing their lives with more secular view. Humanists suggested that a person might enjoy life without offending God, enjoying luxuries, music, and fine foods. The spirit of the Renaissance was built on this.
Renaissance writers produced works that reflected
their time, but also used techniques that writers rely
on today. They wrote in vernacular rather than Latin
to reach a broad audience. Renaissance writers wrote
either for self-expression or to portray the individuality
of their subjects. Other authors such as Niccolo
Machiavelli examined the imperfect conduct of
human beings. In his book The Prince, Machiavelli
examines how a ruler can gain power and keep it
in spite of his enemies. In answering this question
he began with the idea that most people are selfish,
fickle, and most of all corrupt. He argued that a
leader must be as strong as a lion and shrewd as a
fox. To do this, a leader must sometimes mislead the
people and lie to his opponents. He famously wrote when faced with question whether it is more important for a leader to be feared or loved, "it is much safer to be feared than loved."
Over time this emphasis on learning altered the view of the ideal man. During medieval times strength was the sign of greatness. During the Renaissance however, intelligence became the key to greatness. Rather than focusing on developing one skill or expertise, Renaissance culture encouraged men to develop all of
their talents. Leonardo da Vinci became known as a
"Renaissance man" because he was a sculptor, inventor,
and scientist. He studied how a muscle moves and how
veins are arranged on a leaf. Among his many artistic
masterpieces, Leonardo painted one of the best-known
portraits in the world, the Mona Lisa. The woman in
the portrait looked so real that many writers have tried
to explain the thoughts behind her smile. Leonardo also
produced a famous religious painting, The Last Supper,
which shows the personalities of Jesus' disciples through
facial expressions. Although only 17 of Leonardo's
paintings still survive, the work he did produce is so
amazing that it confirms his genius.
Vanishing Point
Niccolo Machiavelli
Mona Lisa
Renaissance Government
Renaissance Italy was not like that of Northern Europe. Whereas France and England were unified by strong monarchies, Italy was made up of a series of city-states which fought frequently for dominance of the region. These states were not for the most part kingdoms either. They were republics which were led by powerful merchants who used their wealth to secure power. They famously used underhanded tactics of violence and intrigue.
The most famous of these merchant rulers were the Medici family from Florence. The Medici had become rich by developing one of Europes first banking systems. The Medici family bank had branch offices throughoutItaly and in major cities of Europe. Cosimo de Medici was the wealthiest European of his time. In 1434, he won control of Florence's government. He did not seek political office for himself, but influenced members of the ruling council by giving them loans. For 30 years, he was dictator of Florence.
Cosimo de Medici died in 1464, but his family continued to control Florence. His grandson, Lorenzo de Medici came to power in 1469. Known as Lorenzo the Magnificent, he ruled as a dictator yet kept the appearance of having an elected government. Other Medicis rose to the pinnacle of European society with several even becoming Pope. Other women were married to some of Europe's powerful princes and one, Catherine de Medici, even became Queen of France. When her husband died she ruled the kingdom in the name of her son as perhaps the most powerful person in all of Europe. The Renaissance was a time for ambition, and wealth could propell anyone to the highest positions of power in Europe.
The Northern Renaissance
Slowly the ideas of the Renaissance spread out of Italy to Northern Europe- especially England, France, Germany, and Flanders. Unlike Italy which was divided into city-states, England and France were unified under strong monarchs. These rulers often sponsored the arts by purchasing paintings and becoming patrons of artists and writers. As Renaissance ideas spread out of Italy, they mingled with northern traditions. As a result the Northern Renaissance developed its own character. For example, the artists were especially interested in realism. The ideal of humanism had transformed from the quest for human potential into an expression and examination of the human condition.
Northern Renaissance Art
In 1494 a series of wars involving France and the Italian city-states led many Italian artists and writers to go north for a safer life in Northern Europe. They brought with them the styles and techniques of the Italian Renaissance. In addition, Northern European artists who studied in Italy carried Renaissance ideas back to their homelands.
German painters such as Albrecht Dürer produced realistic woodcuts and engravings which explored secular topics such as classical myths and realistic landscapes. Other German artists such as Hans Holbein the Younger specialized in painting portraits which were almost photographic in detail He emigrated to England where he painted the portraits of English royalty others such as Henry VIII and Thomas More.
In Flanders the development of oil-based paints allowed for the application of layings of paint to create a variety of subtle colors in clothing and jewels. In addition to new techniques, artists such as Jan van Eyck created paintings which display unusually realistic details which reveal the personality of their subjects.
Flemish painting reached its peak with the work of Pieter Bruegel. Bruegel was interested in painting scenes from everyday peasant life such as weddings, dances, and harvests. His realistic details capture the humanity as it was rather than an ideal as the Italian masters had. While maintaining an emphasis on people, humanism in the north had evolved into something different in Northern Europe.
Pieter Bruegel
Albrecht Dürer
Northern Renaissance Literature
Italian humanists were interested in reviving classical languages and classical texts. Northern humanists instead began using ancient thinking to examine and criticize the Catholic Church. This movement, known as Christian Humanism, focused on reforming the Church to reform society. Scholars such as Erasmus and Thomas More tried to promote the idea of a Christianity of the heart rather than one of ceremonies and rules. More's book Utopia was about an imaginary place where greed, corruption, and war were weeded out. Although these books were written in Latin, they were translated into vernacular languages which made them more accessable and available.
In England, Renaissance authors such as William Shakespeare examined the lives of human beings. He revealed the souls of men and women through scenes of dramatic conflict. Many of these plays examine human flaws and express the Renaissance's high view of human nature.
Thomas More
William Shakespeare
Printing Spreads Renaissance Ideas
The Chinese invented block printing centuries prior to Europe, however the development of the Printing Press by Johann Gutenberg in Germany revolutionized the sharing of knowledge in Europe. The process made it possible to produce books quickly and cheaply. Using his printing press Gutenberg could produce 500 books in the time it took a copyist in a monastery to produce one. For the first time, books were cheap enough that many people could buy them allowing for the spreading of knowledge to the masses. At first printers produced mainly religious works, but over time they produced books on other secular topics. This invention paved the way for public debate as suddenly beliefs could be shared across Europe. It also made the invention of daily newspapers possible which could inform masses of important happenings and topics that the people yearned for.
The Legacy of the Renaissance
The Renaissance reshaped European society by allowing people to break with medieval ideals which focused exclusively on the Church. The belief in the dignity of the individual played a key role in the rise of democratic ideas. Over time Europeans would challenge traditions and even the center of medieval society; the Catholic Church itself.
The Protestant Reformation
Throughout the medieval period the Church had been the center of society. The church united Europe and bound society under the authority of the Pope. Despite this profound power, many people began to criticize the Church's practices. They felt that Church leaders were too interested in worldly pursuits, such as gaining wealth and political power. Prompted by the actions of one man, that criticism would lead to rebellion and ultimately the division of Christianity into two competing factions; Catholic and Protestant.
Causes of the Reformation
By 1500 the Renaissance emphasis on the secular and individual challenged Church authority. The printing press spread these ideas and values across Europe. In addition, some rulers began to challenge the Church's political power. Many resented paying church taxes to a Pope far off in Rome. Kings also lived in constant fear of being excommunicated by the Church for taking any measure which contradicted the Pope's authority. To compound the situation, kings were unable to control much of their country because as much as 1/3 of the land belonged to the Church who opperated independently of the king. It was clear that the Church and governments were set against one another.
Martin Luther Challenges the Church
The German monk Martin Luther saw the corruption of the Catholic Church and decided to take a public stand against it. Luther was angry at the Church's selling of indulgences to raise money to rebuild St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. An indulgence is a pardon which released a sinner from performing the penalty that a priest imposed for sins. Indulgences were not supposed to affect God's right to judge, however, many priests were giving people the impression that by buying indulgences, they could buy their way into heaven.
In response to this corruption Luther wrote 95 Theses in which he attacked the Church. He posted these statements on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg and invited other scholars to debate him. Someone copied Luther's words and took them to a printer who recopied the 95 Theses and disseminated copies throughout Europe. Quickly Luther's name became known all over Germany and people began flocking to his teachings. Soon Luther went beyond criticizing indulgences and demanded full reform of the Church. This movement became known as the Reformation.
Luther's teaching was based on three main ideas:
-
Salvation can be won only by faith in God's forgiveness
-
All Church teachings should be based on the Bible
-
All people were equal and didn not need priests to interpret the Bible for them.
Luther was astonished by how rapidly his ideas spread and attracted followers. Many people had been unhappy with the Church for political and economic reasons and saw Luther's protest as a way to challenge Chuch control. Initially Church officials viewed Luther as a rebellious monk and did not understand the threat Luther represented. In 1520, Pope Leo X issued a decree threatening Luther with excommunication unless he took back his statements. When Luther refused he was called to trial by the Emperor Charles V, a devout Catholic. A month later Charles issued an imperial order, the Edict of Worms. It declared Luther an outlaw and a heretic. According to this edict, no one in the empire was to give Luther food or shelter and all of his books were to be burned. However, Prince Frederick of Saxony disobeyed the emperor and provided him shelter. Instead of continuing to seek reforms in the Catholic Church, Luther and his followers had created a separate religious group, called Lutherans.
The Reformation Continues
A young law student from France named John Calvin took steps to continue the reformation. Whereas Luther had been primarily focused on reforming practices and discrediting the rituals and clergy of the Catholic faith, Calvin sought to revise the teachings and belief systems of Christianity. In 1536, Calvin published Institutes of the Christian Religion. This book expressed ideas about God, salvation, and human nature. Calvin wrote that men and women are sinful by nature. Taking Luther's idea that humans cannot earn salvation, Calvin went on to say that God chooses very few people to save. Calvin called these few the "elect." He believed that God has known since the beginning of time who will be saved. This doctrine is called predestination. The religion that developed from these beliefs became known as Calvinism.
Calvin believed that the ideal government was a theocracy, a government controlled by religious leaders. In 1541, Protestants in Geneva, Switzerland asked Calvin to lead their city. Calvin and his followers ran the city according to strict rules. Everyone attended religion class. No one wore bright clothing or played card games. Authorities would imprison, excommunicate, or banish those who broke such rules. Anyone who preached different doctrines might be burned at the stake. Yet, to many Protestants, Calvin's Geneva was a model city of highly moral citizens.
Other Protestant Reformers
Many Protestants adopted John Calvin's beliefs or reformed beliefs of their own. In Scotland, John Knox helped establish the Presbyterian Church by modeling it on Calvin's teachings. In France, Calvin's follwers were called Huguenots. Hatred between Catholics and Huguenots frequently led to violence, resulting in almost 50 years of civil war. Some Protestants established beliefs of their own. The Anabaptists taught that the Church and State should be separate and refused to fight in wars. Viewing Anabaptists as radicals who threatened society, both Catholics and Protestants persecuted them. Despite their persecution, Anabaptists survived and became the forerunners of the Mennonite and Amish movements. Their teachings influenced the later Quaker and Baptists, groups who split from the Anglican Church.
The Counter Reformation
While Protestant churches won many followers, millions remained true to Catholicism. Helping Catholics to remain loyal was a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself. This movement is known as the Counter-Reformation or sometimes the Catholic Reformation. Through tireless work, Catholic reformers worked to bring back Christians to the Catholic Church and spiritually rejuvinate Catholicism. Over time the Counter-Reformation made the Church more unified and ended much of the corruption which caused the Reformation itself.
The Society of Jesus
Many Catholics also looked to return the Church to spiritual manners by reforming its practices. Ignatius of Loyola from Spain wrote a book called Spiritual Exercises which laid out a plan for meditation, prayer, and study. He compared it to physical exercise. Ignatius gathered followers and in 1540 the pope created a religious order for his followers which became known as the Society of Jesus. Members were called Jesuits. The Jesuits focused on three activities. First, they founded superb schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were well-trained in both classical studies and theology, reflecting the humanist values of the Renaissance. The Jesuits' second mission was to convert non-Christians to Catholicism. So, they sent out missionaries around the world. These missionaries were especially successful in converting the peoples of the newly discovered Americas. Third, Jesuits sought to stop the spread of Protestantism. The zeal of Jesuits overcame the drift toward Protestantism in Poland and sounthern Germany. Jesuits did this through a variety of means ranging from simple preaching to assassination attempts of Protestnt leaders of Europe.
The Council of Trent
Two popes took the lead in reforming the Catholic Church. Paul III, pope from 1534 to 1549, took four important steps. First he directed a council of cardinals to investigate the selling of indulgences and other abuses in the Church. Second, he approved the Jesuit order. Third, he used the Inquisition to seek out heresy in papal territory. Fourth, and most important, he called a council of Church leaders to meet in Trent, in northern Italy.
From 1545 to 1563, at the Council of Trent, Catholic bishops and cardinals agreed on several doctrines:
-
The Church's interpretation of the Bible was final. Any Christian who substituted his or her own interpretation was a heretic.
-
Christians needed faith and good works for salvation. They were not saved by faith alone, as Luther argued.
-
The Bible and the Church tradition were equally powerful authorities for guiding Christian life.
-
Indulgences were valid expressions of faith. But the false selling of indulgences was banned.
The next pope, Paul IV, vigorously carried out the council's decrees. In 1559, he had officials draw up a list of books considered dangerous to the Catholic faith. This list was known as the Index of Forbidden Books. Catholic bishops throughout Europe were ordered to gather up the offensive books and burn them in bonfires. In Venice alone, followers burned 10,000 books in one day.
Although the Counter-Reformation was never successful in destroying Protestantism, it was able to stop its spread and bring some back to the Church. The corruption which had come to define the Church in the late medieval period was reduced and the Church took on new roles as the center of learning. Religion became a central theme of the sixteenth and much of the seventeenth century as European states went to war in the name of God and ultimately introduced a new concept; freedom of religion.
The Wars of Religion
The religious divisions which tore apart European society during the Reformation ultimately led to war as each nation reacted in their own ways to the ideas Luther proposed. Some states remained committed to Catholicism while others followed Protestant beliefs. During the Reformation, the decision to convert was not only religious, but also political. These decisions of kings ultimately shaped the identities of his people for generations as the king's religion became the religion of his people, redefining each nation permanently.
Spain
The Hapsburg king Charles V inherited a great empire in the sixteenth century including Austria, Spain, parts of Italy, the Netherlands, as well as the American colonies in Spain's empire. Charles was also elected Holy Roman Emperor, giving him authority in much of Germany as well. This massive empire dominated politics and rivaled the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman for the period's greatest empire.
Charles was a devout Catholic and not only fought Muslims for control of the Mediterranean, but also opposed the spread of Protestantism through a series of wars all over Europe. In 1555, he unwillingly agreed to the Peace of Augsburg, which allowed German princes to choose the religion of their territory. The following year, Charles V divided his empire and retired. To his brother he left Austria and the Holy Roman Empire, to his son he left Spain, the Netherlands, and portions of Italy.
The Hapsburg Empire
Philip was shy, serious, and most of all devoutly Catholic. Philip assumed the role as Defender of Catholicism and set out to take up arms against non-Catholics throughout Europe. In 1571, the pope called on all Catholic princes to take up arms against the mounting power of the Ottoman Empire. Philip responded like a true crusader. More than 200 Spanish and Venitian ships defeated a large Ottoman fleet in a fierce battle near Lepanto.
In the Spanish Netherlands, Philip had to maintain an army to keep his subjects under control. The Dutch had little in common with their Spanish rulers. While Spain was Catholic, many Dutch in the north had converted to Calvinism. When Philip raised taxes to crush Protestantism, angy mobs swept through Catholic Churches. The Spanish sent in an army to punish rebels and their Protestant leaders. The Dutch Revolt lasted another 11 years until the northern provinces of the Netherlands under the leadership of William of Orange won thier independenc from Spain. The ten southern provinces (Belgium) were Catholic and remained under Spanish control.
In 1588, Philip launched the Spanish Armada in attempt to punish Protestant England and its queen, Elizabeth I. Elizabeth had supported Protestants who rebelled in the Netherlands and executed her Scottish cousin Mary. If England could be taken and returned to Catholicsm, there would be no major power in Europe left to support Protestant princes in Germany. Despite overwhelming numerical superiority the English defeated the Armada. This stunning defeat was a serious setback for Spain and weakened its navy so greatly that it never fully recovered.
Although Spain continued to politically exert power as the leader of Catholicism, following their defeat they could no longer militarily meet the demands of their ambitious kings. Their economy continued to weaken and country was forced to declare bankruptcy on several occasions. Following the reign of Philip, it was clear that Protestantism could not be destroyed thourgh force.
France
Unlike Spain which had seen few convert to Protestantism, in France many, particularly nobility, converted to Calvinism. The French Protestants called Huguenots became entangled in a century of civil war in France which slowly eroded the power of the French King.
Problems for France began with the sudden death of Henry II in 1559. He left behind four young sons. Three of them lived long enough to rule France, but all proved to be incompetent. The real power behind the throne was their mother, Catherine de Medicis. Catherine worked her whole life to preserve royal authority for her children but competing factions within the French court as well as the incessant wars with Huguenots ravaged the country. Between 1562 and 1598, Huguenots and Catholics fought eight religious wars which threatened to permanently divide France in two.
In 1572, members of the Nobility, Protestant and Catholic alike, were summoned to Paris to celebrate the marriage of Henry III of Navarre and the French princess Margaret de Valois. The marriage was intended on being an expression of peace as Henry was a Protestant and Margaret a Catholic. Instead, the marriage sparked a six-week, nationwide slaughter of Huguenots that has posthumously become known as the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Although no one knows for certain, Catherine was was demonized for this stunnig attack which prolonged the religious wars and villainized her amongst many French historians.
Despite Catherine's efforts to maintain her family dynasty, her final son Henry died in 1589 childless, marking an end to the Valois Dynasty. The next in line to the throne was Henry of Navarre, the same Protestant whose marriage ignited the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Many Catholics, including the people of Paris, opposed Henry. For the sake of his war-weary country, Henry chose to give up Protestantism and become a Catholic. Explaining his conversion, Henry reportedly declared, "Paris is well worth a mass." Henry of Navarre, now Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes which granted Huguenots the right to worship publically and hold public office. Although this Edict was eventually repealed by Louis XIV and persecution resumed, the edict brought an end to the French Wars of Religion and France moved forward as a Catholic nation.
The English Reformation
The English Reformation was a violent back and forth struggle which lasted for much of the sixteenth century. Unlike France or Spain, the Reformation in England was initiated for political reasons; mainly, the king's desire to control his country without interference from the pope in Rome.
Prior to the Reformation, the English king Henry VIII was considered by the pope as one of Europe's defenders of Catholicism for his role in fighting the French alongside Spain. However, after years of marriage to his first wife Catherine of Aragon he had only had one child, a girl. Henry became obsessed with producing a male heir to the throne. At this time Henry met the young Anne Boelyn who refused his advances without a proposition of marriage. Henry asked the pope for an annullment to his marriage to Catherine so that he could marry Anne who was able to have children but was repeatedly denied. Desperate to resolve the crisis Henry's ministers offered a stunning suggestion: a religious break with Rome. After long and painful consideration Henry agreed to dissolve England's connection with Catholic Church and established the Church of England.
Henry's marriage to Anne slowly unraveled as Anne, like Catherine before, had only one child- another girl. After several failed pregnancies Henry once again began to look for a new spouse. After meeting Jane Seymour, Henry once again looked to clear the way to marry a new wife. Anne was accused of adultry and sentenced to death. Anne was beheaded May 19, 1536. Unlike Catherine and Anne, Jane gave birth to a son in 1537 but died shortly after due to complications from child birth. Henry went on to marry another three times for different reasons, and the many wives of Henry have become part of his legacy.
Henry's new Church made very few changes other than the Act of Supremacy which made the king the head of the Church rather than the pople. Henry also led the dissolution of the monasteries in which all the monks were evicted and the income and assets of the religious centers of England were seized by the state. This evidence supports the claim that Henry's Reformation was initiated purely for political reasons rather than religious ones like in Germany or France. The English Reformation was based on establishing an independent monarchy and a unified state.
Following Henry's death the English Reformation took on a violent tug-of-war as the country was pulled back and forth between Protestantism and Catholicism by his three children. Henry's successor Edward VI was only nine years old when he came to the throne and much of the governing of England was left to his uncle the Duke of Somerset. His uncle pushed the country in a Calvinist direction by destroying images within many Churches in England and Stripping the Alters. Edward's government also introduced the Book of Common Prayer for the church. Violence erupted as people challenged the changes brought by Edward and the country was poised for civil war when suddenly in 1553 Edward died, leaving the crown to his Catholic sister Mary.
From 1553-1558 Mary I began dismantling the legislation passed which had made England a Protestant country. Under Mary, England was reunited with Rome and the parliament began taking steps for the restoration of Catholicism in England. Mary began a purge to remove Protestants from England which resulted in the burnings of 283 Protestants including Edward's trusted advisor Thomas Cranmer. These attacks earned her the moniker "Bloody Mary." Mary, like her father became obsessed with having a child who could take over the country after her reign and looked all over Europe for a monarch worthy of marrying. Mary chose Philip II of Spain, another Catholic devoted to destroying Protestantism in Europe. Their marriage never produced an heir and when Mary died in 1558 the crown passed to her younger sister Elizabeth.
During Elizabeth's reign the country broke with Rome and made England Protestant once more. Elizabeth's reformation was much more mild than Edward's had been. She, like her father was most concerned with taking control of the country as the supreme authority of both church and state. Elizabeth returned the Book of Common Prayer and allowed for measured tolerance within England. Everyone was expected to be Protestant, but Elizabeth did not actively pursue Catholics, so long as they swore an oath of loyalty to her authority.
Following the defeat of the Spanish Armada, England was secure from the threat of foreign invasion and the English slowly adopted Protestant beliefs. The English Reformation had been a tumultuous time which rocked England to its core, but the measures taken by Elizabeth made England a strong unified nation which had stood united against threats from the continent. Nationalism continued to grow in England and the Protestantism and determination became a piece of the English character. England replaced Spain as the European naval power and began their own program of colonization of the Americas. Following the Reformation it was England rather than Spain leading the way as the economic power in the seventeenth century, creating a Protestant global empire.
Germany
Germany, the home of Martin Luther, was expectantly the most changed by the Protestant Reformation. The country was plagued by more violent and longer lasting wars than any other nation in Europe. Moreover, Germany became the center of the larger conflict of Catholocism against Protestantism as virtually every country in Europe at one time or another had sent an army into Germany to fight some religious war. For over a century Germany was torn asunder by a series of brutal wars which tore apart communities and society as a whole. As neighbors turned on neighbors, the reformation expanded into witch hunts and the country was left divided and broken.
By the time of the Reformation the Holy Roman Empire's unity was unraveling. Although the country was officially united under the leadership of the Holy Roman Empire, in reality it was the local princes who held all real authority. Each territory had its own laws and customs, and princes raised their own independent armies, outside the power of the emperor. This divisive nature allowed Germany to fracture following Luther's 95 Theses. The Emperor called for Luther to be arrested, but the lord of Saxony refused to submit to his demands. Over time other princes reached out to Luther, some for religious reason, and others to free themselves from the power of the Church or Holy Roman Emperor himself. This kicked off some of Germany's first wars of religion, as the emperor struggled to enforce his authority over the empire. In the end, the emperor was forced to sign the Peace of Augsburg against his will, granting each prince the right to determine the religion for his own subjects. Following this treaty Germany was no longer unified by any means.
An unforeseen consequence of Luther's protest against the Catholic Church was the German Peasants' War which serfs rose up against their feudal lords, echoing the way Luther had rebelled against the Pope. Peasants throughout Germany took up arms in attempt to end feudalism and gain their freedom. However, when the peasants asked for Luther's blessing for their actions he refused, citing that the equality he spoke of existed only in religious terms- not worldly ones. Without Luther's blessing the aristocracy was able to brutally supress the movement, killing between 100,000-300,000 peasants in a series of battles and massacres. The aftermath of the uprising was a general reduction in the rights and privledges of the peasant class, effectively removing them from any political discussion. Many have come to see the Peasants' War as the first attempt in European history to create social equality, however its defeat allowed for the feudal hierarchy to retain its authority for another 250 years.
The Pre-Columbian Americas
While civilizations were developing in Africa, Asia, and Europe, they were also emerging in the Americas. Human settlement in the Americas is relatively recent compared to that in other parts of the world. However, it followed a similar pattern. At first the ancient people of the Americas survived mainly by hunting. Over time, they developed farming methods that ensured a more reliable supply of food. This in turn led to the growth of the first civilizations in the Americas. The first Americans arrived sometime toward the end of the last Ice Age. Most experts believe they crossed a land bridge or arrived by boat in present day Alaska and moved southwards as they followed herds migrating south and settled the continent. However, unlike the peoples of Afroeurasia who regularly interacted with one another, the people of the Americas remained isolated for centuries unaware of the advances in technology happening a world away.
In some ways , the early North American cultures were less developed than those of South America and Mesoamerica. The North American groups created no great empires. They left few ruins as spectacular as those of ancient Mexico or Peru. Nevertheless, the first peoples of North America did create complex societies. These societies were able to conduct long distace trade and construct magnificent buildings.
Throughout the continent a variety of tribes created different and distinct cultures. In the Pacific Northwest they were reliant on the sea and hunted whales in canoes. In the Southwest American tribes successfully developed irriation systems to produce harvests of corn, beans, and squash. Their use of pottery rather than baskets, as well certain religious rituals, showed contact with Mesoamerican peoples to the south. Some even developed complex building techniques to create pueblos which were built into walls of deep canyons. On the Great Plains, other ancient peoples began mound building. These huge earthen mounds were used to bury their dead or for religious ceremonies. In the northeast, along the Atlantic coast, woodland tribes developed a variety of cultures. In some areas, tribes formed political alliances to ensure protection of tribal lands. The best example of this was the Iroquois in the Great Lakes region. North America was a land of diversity.
The Iroquois alliance was a notable example of a political link. For the most part, however, the connections between native North Americans were economic and cultural. They traded, had similar religious beliefs, and shared social patterns. This can be seen in regards to their social organization. Family was the basis for social organization. Generally, the family unit was the extended family, including parents, children, grandparents, and other close relatives. Some tribes further organized families into groups of families descended from a common ancestor. In some tribes, clan members lived together in large houses or groups of houses.
Common among Native American tribes was the use of totems. The term refers to a natural object with which an individual, clan, or group identifies itself. The totem was used as a symbol of the unity of the group or clan. It also helped define certain behaviors and the social relationships of the group. For example, the Northwestern peoples displayed totem symbols on masks, boats, and huge poles set in front of their houses. Others used totem symbols in rituals or dances associated with important group events such as marriages, the naming of children, or planting or harvesting crops.
The Maya
Further south, the peoples of Mexico and Central America were entering into the full flower of civilization. A prime example of this cultural flowering were the Maya, who built an extraordinary civilization in the heart of Mesoamerica which stretched from southern Mexico into northern Central America. This culture centered around the dry scrub forest of the Yucatan Penninsula and the dense, steamy jungles of southeastern Mexico and northern Guatamala. By A.D. 250, the Maya culture had burst forth a flourishing civilization.
The Maya developed as independent city-states, ruled by a god-king and serving as a center for religious ceremonies and trade. Maya cities featured giant pyramids, temples, palaces, and elaborate stone carvings dedicated to the gods and to important rulers. Tens of thousands of people lived in residential areas surrounding the city center, which bustled with activity. Archaeologists have identified at least 50 major Maya sites, all with monumental architecture. Each Maya city also featured a ball court. In this stone-sided playing field, the Maya believe the playing of this game would maintiain the cycles of the sun and mooon and bring life-giving rains.
Although the Maya city-states were independent of each other, they were linked through alliances and trade. Cities exchanged their local products such as salt, flint, feathers, shells, and honey. They also traded craft goods like cotton textiles and jade ornaments. While the Maya did not have a uniform currency, cacao (chocolate) beans sometimes served as one. As in the rest of Mesoamerica, agriculture-particularly the growing of maize, beans, and squash- provided the basis of Maya life.
Religion influenced most aspects of Maya life. The Maya were polytheist and believed in many gods. There were gods of corn, of death, of rain, and of war. Gods could be good or evil, and sometimes both. Gods were associated with the four directions and with different colors: white for north, black for west, yellow for south, red for east, and green in the center. The Maya believed that each day was a living god whose behavior could be predicted with the help of a system of calendars.
The Maya worshiped their gods in various ways. They prayed and made offerings of food, flowers, and incense. They also pierced and cut their bodies and offerend their blood, believing that this would nourish the gods. Sometimes the Maya even carried out human sacrifice, usually of captured enemies. At Chichen Itza, they threw captives into a deep sinkhole lake, called a cenote, along with gold, jade, and other offerings. The Maya believed that human sacrifice pleased the gods and kept the world in balance. Nevertheless, the Maya's use of sacrifice never reached the extremes of some other Mesoamerican peoples.
Maya religious beliefs also led to the development of a calendar, mathematics, and astronomy. The Maya believed that time was a burden carried on the back of a god. At the end of a day, month, or year, one god would lay the burden down and another would pick it up. A day would be lucky or unlucky, depending on the nature of the god. So, it was very important to have an accurate calendar to know which god was in charge of the day. The Maya developed a 260-day religious calendar with thirteen 20-day months. A second 365-day solar calendar consisted of eighteen 20-day months, with a separate period of 5 days at the end. The two calendars were linked together like meshed gears so that any given day could be identified in both cycles. The calendar helped identify the best times to plant crops, attack enemies, and crown new rulers.
The Maya also developed the most advanced writing system in the ancient Americas. Maya writing consisted of about 800 hieroglyphic symbols, or glyphs. Some of these represented whole words while others represented syllables. The Maya used their writing system to record important historical events by carving them in stone or recording them on a bark-paper book known as a codex. Only 3 of these books have survived.
The Maya decline remains a mystery for historians. In the late 800s, the Maya suddenly abandoned many of their cities. Invaders from the north, the Toltec, moved into the lands occupied by the Maya. These warlike peoples from central Mexico changed the culture. The high civilization of Maya cities disappeared. Some believe that warfare caused the decline of the Maya, others believe that over-farming damaged the environment leading to food shortages, famine and disease. By the time the Spanish arrived in the early 1500s, the Maya were divided into small, weak city-states that gave little hint of their former glory.
The Aztec
In central Mexico, where modern Mexico City is located, the greatest empire of Mesoamerica developed; the Aztec. The Aztecs built built a great monumental city called Teotihuacan which at its peak had a population of between 150,000-200,000 people, making it one of the largest cities in the world at that time. The heart of the city was a central avenue lined with more than 20 pyramids dedicated to vaious gods. The largest of these was the giant Pyramid of the Sun. The imposing building stood more than 200 feet tall and measured close to 3,000 feet around its base. The people of Teotihuacan lived in apartment-block buildings in the area around the central avenue.
Over the years, the Aztecs gradually increased in strength and number. In 1428, they joined with two other city-states to form the Triple Alliance. This alliance allowed the Aztec to gain control over neighboring regions. By the early 1500s, the alliance controlled a vast empire that covered some 80,000 square miles with a population between 5 and 15 million people.
Like the Maya, religion played a major role in Aztec society. Tenochtitlan contained hundreds of temples and religious structures dedicated to the approximately 1,000 gods that the Aztecs worshiped. Aztec religious practices centered on elaborate public ceremonies designed to communicate with the gods and win their favor. At these ceremonies, priests made offerings to the gods and presented ritual dramas, songs, and dances featuring masked performers. The most important rituals involved the sun god Huitzilopochtli. According to Aztec belief, Huitzilopochtli made the sun rise every day. When the sun set, he had to battle the forces of evil to get to the next day. To make sure that he was strong enough for this ordeal, he needed the nourishment of human blood, without it he would be too weak to fight. For this reason, Aztec priests practiced human sacrifice on a massive scale. Each year, thousands of victims were led to the altar atop the Great Temple, where priests carved out the hearts while they were still beating. To supply priests with sacrifices, the Aztecs often went to war and adapted battle tactics to ensure they took their opponents alive.
In 1502, a new ruler, Montezuma II, was crowned emperor. Under Montezuma, the Aztec empire began to weaken. A number of provinces rose up against Aztec oppression. This began a period of unrest and rebellion, which the military struggled to put down. Many Aztecs began to predict that terrible things were about to happen. They saw bad omens in every unusual occurrence- lightning striking the temple in Tenochtitlan, or a partial eclipse of the sun for example. The most worrying event was the arrival of the Spanish. For many Aztecs, these fair-skinned, bearded strangers from across the sea brought to mind the legend of the return of Quetzalcoatl. Although initially welcomed by the Aztec, the Spanish would bring with them the destruction of the Aztecs Empire from which the Spanish would create their own American Empire upon the ruins of the Aztecs.
The Inca Empire
In South America, another people- the Inca- created their own powerful state in South America. From Cuzco, their capital in southrn Peru, the Inca spread outward in all directions. They brought the various Andean peoples under their control and built an empire that stretched from Ecuador in the north to Chile in the south. It was the largest empire ever seen in the Americas.
To exercise control over their empire the Inca built many cities and an intricate road system to tie them together. The architecture of government buildings was the same all over the empire, making the presence of government apparent. As in Rome, all roads led to their capital city, Cuzco. Cuzco was a splendid city of temples, plazas, and palaces. Though they had no iron tools and did not use the wheel, Incan builders carved and transported huge blocks of stone, fitting them together perfectly without mortar. Many Incan walls still stand today, undisturbed by the region's frequent earthquakes.
The Incan state exercised almost total control over economic and social life. It controlled most economic activity, regulating the production and distribution of goods. Unlike the May and Aztecs, the Inca allowed little private commerce or trade. The main demand the Incan state placed on its subjects was for tribute, usually in the form of labor. The labor tribute was known as mita. It required all able-bodied citizens to work for the state a certain number of days every year. Mita workers might labor on state farmlands, produce craft goods for state warehouses, or help with public works projects. Historians have compared the Incan system to a type of socialism or a modern welfare state. Citizens were expected to work for the state and were cared for in return. For example, the elderly and disabled were often supported by the state. The state also made sure that people did not go hungry when there were bad harvests. Freeze-dried potatoes called chuno, were stored in huge government warehouses for distribution in times of food shortages.
As with the Aztecs, religion was important to the Inca and helped reinforce the power of the state. The Inca worshiped fewer gods than the Aztecs. The Inca focused on key nature spirits such as the moon, the stars, and thunder. In the balance of nature, the Inca saw patterns for the way humans should relate to each other and to the earth. Chief of the Incan gods was a creator god called Viracocha. Next in importance was the sun god, Inti. Because the Incan ruler was considered a descendant of Inti, sun worship amounted to woship of the king.
The Temple of the Sun in Cuzco was the most sacred of all Incan shrines. It was heavily decorated in gold, a metal the Inca referred to as "sweat of the sun." In fact, gold was a common sight throughout Cuzco. The walls of several buildings had a covering of thin gold sheeting.
While Cuzco was the religious capital of the Incan empire, other Incan cities also served ceremonial purposes. For example, Machu Picchu, excavated by Hiram Bingham in 1912, was isolated and mysterious. Like Cuzco, Machu Picchu also had a sun temple, public buildings, and a central plaza. Some sources suggest it was a religious center. Others think it was an estate of the emperor Pachacuti. Still other believe it was a retreat for Incan rulers or the nobility. To this day it remains unknown.
The Inca Empire reached the height of its glory in the early 1500s during the reign of Huayna Capac. In the 1520s he undertook a tour of Ecuador, a newly conqered area of the empire. In the city of Quito, he received a gift box. When he opened it, out flew butterflies and moths, considered an evil omen. A few weeks later, while still in Quito, Huayna Capac died of disease- probably smallpox. After his death the empire was split between his two sons and a bitter civil war followed. The war tore apart the empire just in time for the arrival of the Spanish. Taking advantage of Incan weakness, they easily conquered the empire.
The Age of Exploration
By the 1400s Europeans were expanding their world. The Renaissance encouraged a new spirit of adventure and curiosity, leading many to venture beyond their borders. These expeditions out into the world began a long process that would bring together the peoples of the world, creating the first global era in history. This new interconnected world enabled the sharing of goods, ideas, and cultures. It also brought with it destruction, war, and disease on a scale not seen before as Europeans embarked on a quest for empire.
For "God, Glory, and Gold"
Europeans had not been completely isolated from the rest of the world before the 1400s. Beginning around 1100, European crusaders battled Muslims for control of the Holy Lands in the Levant. In 1275, the Italian trader Marco Polo reached the court of Kublai Khan in China. For the most part however, Europeans had neither the interest nor the ability to explore foreign lands. That changed by the fifteenth century. The desire for wealth and to spread Christianity, coupled with advances in sailing technology spurred an age of European exploration.
The quest for wealth was the main reason for Euroean exploration. Following the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Europeans had hoped to find a direct overseas route to the luxury goods brought on the Silk Road from China. The price of these goods was steadily increasing due to Italian and Muslim merchants and many looked to bypass them and keep the profit for themselves.
The desire to spread Christianity also motivated Europeans to explore. The Crusades had left Europeans with a taste for spices, but more significantly with feelings of hostility between Christians and Muslims. European countries believed that they had a sacred duty not only to continue fighting Muslims, but also to convert non-Christians throughout the world. Bartolomeu Dias, a Portuguese explorer summarized this sentiment with, "To serve God and His Majesty, to give light to those who were in darkness and to grow rich as all men desire to do."
While "God, glory, and gold" were the motives for exploration, advances in technology is what made these voyages possible. During the 1200s, it would have been nearly impossible for a European sea captain to cross 3,000 miles of ocean and return again. The main problem was that ships could not sail against the wind. In the 1400s, ship builders designed a new vessel, the caravel. The ship was sturdier than earlier vessels and because of triangular sails adopted from Arabs, it could sail effectively against the wind. Europeans also improved navigation techniques. The use of the astrolabe and magnetic compass allowed captains to effectively determine their position and direction so that ships would not get lost in the vast expanses of the ocean. This improved technology allowed European captains to become masters of the seas.
Portugal and Spain Lead the Way
Portugal was the first European country to apply these sailing innovations and used this technology to establish trading outposts along the west coast of Africa. The Portuguese traded with Africans for such profitable items as gold, ivory, and slaves. Slowly, Portuguese captains explored further down the African coast until in 1488 Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa. In 1498, Portuguese sailor Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on the southwestern coast of India. Da Gama and his crew were amazed by the spices, rare silks, and precious gems that filled Calicut's shops. The Portuguese sailors filled their ships and returned home. Their cargo was worth 60 times the cost of the voyage. This direct sea route to India instantly made Portugal rich.
As the Portuguese were establishing lucrative trading posts along the west coast of Africa, Spain watched with increasing envy. The Spanish monarchs also desired a direct sea route to Asia. In 1492, an Italian sea captain, Christopher Columbus convinced Spain to finance a bold plan: finding a route to Asia by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. Instead of finding a route to Asia, Columbus reached an island in the Caribbean. He mistakenly thought that he had reached the East Indies, but more importantly, it opened the door for European colonization of the Americas- a process that would forever change the world. This discovery created a conflict with the Portuguese who believed that they had a claim to the lands discovered by the Spanish. To settle this dispute, the pope proposed a line of demarcation which divided the Americas called the Treaty of Toresillas. It gave Brazil to the Portuguese and the remaining lands in the Americas to Spain.
Other Nations Explore
Beginning around 1600, the English and Dutch began to challenge Spain and Portugals dominance of the oceans. The Dutch Republic, also known as the Netherlands, had been a Spanish territory until 1581 when they had won their independence. In a short time the Dutch became a leading sea power and began encroaching on Portuguese and Spanish claims. Both the Dutch and English had formed an East India Company to establish and direct trade throughout Asia. These companies had the power to mint money, make treaties, and even raise their own armies. The Dutch established their trading headquarters at Batavia on the island of Java and expanded west to conquer the surrounding islands. Throughout the 1600s, the Netherlands increased its control of the Indian Ocean trade. They also took control of the Cape of Good Hope on the southern tip of Africa which was used as a resupply stop. By 1700, the Netherlands had replaced the Portuguese as the leading power in the Indian Ocean.
By 1700 the British and French had also gained a foothold in the region. Having failed to win control of the larger area, the English East India Company focused much of its energy on establishing outposts in India. There, the English developed a successful business trading Indian cloth in Europe. In 1664, France also entered the Asia trade with its own East India Company. It struggled at first as it faced continual attacks by the Dutch, however it was never able to match the profits of its competitors.
Suplemental Videos
History v. Columbus
Europeans Build American Empires
Following the voyage of 1492 by Christopher Columbus the race for conquest was on for the newly disovered lands of the Americas. In fact the following year Columbus returned with 17 ships and over 1,000 soldiers to claim and conquer the land for Spain. With dreams of glory and gold other Europeans followed in search of their own empires to claim. Needless to say, the fate of Native Americans was ignored by Europeans as their cultures were destroyed and their populations decimated within a generation. In the shadow of Europes road to glory and riches was the story of history's greatest genocide, the destruction of the Native American people.
Spain Conquers an Empire
In 1519 a Spaniard named Hernando Cortes landed on the shores of Mexico. After colonizing several Caribbean islands, the Spanish had turned their attention to the American mainland. Cortes and his conquistadors marched into Mexico lured by rumors of vast lands filled with gold and silver. After marching through difficult mountain passes, Cortes and his force of 600 men reached the magnificent capital of Tenochititlan. The Aztec emperor, Montezuma II, was convinced at first that Cortes was a god wearing armor. He agreed to give the Spanish explorer a share of the empire's existing gold supply. The conquistador was not satisfied.
In late spring of 1520, some of Cortes's men killed many Aztec warriors and chiefs while they were celebrating a religious festival. The Aztecs rebelled and drove Cortes out of the city. The Spaniards, however struck back. Despite being greatly outnumbered, Cortes and his men conquered the Aztec in 1521 with the help of many natives who resented their harsh treatment under the Aztecs, including human sacrifice. With their help, and Spanish muskets and cannons the Aztecs were defeated easily.
Despite these great advantages, the greatest ally the Spanish had in their conquest of the Aztec Empire was neither man nor weapon, but disease. Measles, mumps, smallpox, and typhus were just some of the diseases Europeans brought with them to the Americas. Native Americans had never been exposed to these diseases. Thus, they had developed no natural immunity to them. As a result, they died by the hundreds of thousands. By the time Cortes launched his counterattack, the Aztec population had been greatly reduced by smallpox and measles. In time, European disease would devistate the natives of central Mexico, killing millions of them. These diseases would continue to aid the Spanish in their next target, the Inca Empire.
In 1532, another conquistador, Francisco Pizarro, marched a small force into South America to conquer the Inca Empire. Pizarro met the Incan ruler and ambushed him, crushing his soldiers and kidnapping him. The emperor offered to fill a room once with gold and twice with silver in exchange for his release. However, after receiving the ransom, the Spanish strangled the Incan king. Demoralized by their leader's death, the remaining Incan forces retreated and Pizarro then marched on the Incan Capital, Cuzco. He captured it without a struggle.
In building their new American empire, the Spaniards drew from techniques used during the reconquista of Spain. When conquering the Muslims, the Spanish lived among them and imposed their Spanish culture upon them. The Spanish settlers to the Americas, known as peninsulares, were mostly men. As a result, relationships between Spanish settlers and native women were common. These relationships created a large mestizo- or mixed Spanish and NativeAmerican- population. The native people were forced to work on farms, ranches, or mines in a system called encomienda. Although the landlords had promised to act fairly and respect native workers, many abused them and worked them to death; especially inside dangerous mines.
Spain's American colonies helped make it the richest, most powerful nation in the world during much of the sixteenth century. Ships filled with treasure from the Americas continually sailed into Spanish harbors. Conquistadors pushed north and conquered much of what is today the American southwest. The Spanish also converted the natives to Christianity and burned their sacred objects and prohibited native rituals. By the 1700s the native cultures in Spanish America had largely been erased as they assimilated to Spanish culture.
The Portuguese in Brazil
One area of South America that remained out of control was Brazil. The Portuguese who ruled there found little gold or silver, so the settlers began growing sugar. Clearing out huge swaths of forest land, the Portuguese build giant sugar plantations. The demand for sugar in Europe was great, and the colony enriched Portugal. These plantations were labor intensive and forced the Portuguese to import more and more slaves as the Portuguese cleared land to grow more sugar, making Brazil the highest importer of slaves during the slave trade. Conditions in the tropical climate were horrific and many slaves died performing the labor.
Explorers Establish New France
France was comparatively late to exploration compared to many of its neighbors. Most early French explorers set out in an attempt to find a Northwest Passage to the Pacific Ocean. They explored much of North America, sailing up the St. Lawrence River and into the Great Lakes. Others explored the Mississippi River and the present Midwest region of the United States. Unable to locate a route to the Pacific they established New France and set up trading posts and forts along these rivers. These settlements eventually developed into the cities Montreal, Quebec, Detroit, Marquette, St. Louis, and New Orleans amongst others. France's North American empire was immense, but it was sparsely populated because most of the French who came to the Americas had no desire to build towns or raise families. Instead, most who came were young, single men who came to get rich in the fur trade with Native Americans. Unlike the English, the French were less interested in occupying the territories than they were in making money off the land.
The English and Dutch Arrive in North America
The explorations of the Spanish and French inspired the English. In 1606, a company of London investors received a charter from King James to found a colony in North America. With three ships and more than 100 settlers they built Jamestown in modern Virginia. The colony's start was disastrous. The settlers were more interested in finding gold than in planting crops. During the first few years, seven out of every ten people died of hunger, disease, or battles with Native Americans. Despite their nightmarish start, the colonists eventually gained a foothold and began growing tobacco as a profitable cash crop which they traded with Europe.
In 1620, a group known as Pilgrims or Puritans founded a second English colony, Plymouth, in Massachusettes. Persecuted for their Calvinist beliefs in England, these colonists sought religious freedom. The Puritans wanted to build a model community which would set an example for other Christians to follow. Although the colony experienced early difficulties, it gradually took hold. This was due in large part to the numerous families in the colony, unlike the mostly single, male population of early Jamestown.
Following the English and French into North America were the Dutch. The Dutch, like the French, established fur trade with Native Americans. They built trading posts along the Hudson River at Fort Orange and on Manhattan Island. To the English, the Dutch colonies separated the English colonies and they therefore drove out Dutch from the region, renaming it New York.
The English soon set their eyes upon France's American holdings. In 1754 a dispute over land claims in the Ohio Valley led to a war between the British and the French that became known as the French and Indian War. The British colonists, with the help of the British Army defeated the French in 1763 and took over New France. This war left the Spanish and English in control of massive American Empires.
The Columbian Exchange
The colonization of the Americas dramatically changed the world . It prompted both voluntary and forced migration of millions of people as well as the exchange of foods, plants, animals, and diseases. This has become known as the Columbian Exchange.
Ships from the Americas brought back a wide variety of items that Europeans, Asians, and Africans had never seen before. They included such plants as tomatoes, squash, pineapples, tobacco, and cacao beans. More importantly, Europeans returned with corn and potatoes which were inexpensive to grow and very nutritious. These plants became a steady part of diets which allowed people to live longer and ultimately boosted the world's population. Explorers also returned to Europe with animals such as the turkey which became a part of the diets of people throughout Africa, Asia, and Europe. Traffic did not flow in just one direction. Europeans introduced various animals such as horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs which flourished in the Americas. Foods from Africa migrated west such as bananas, black-eyed peas, and coffee. Grains introduced to the Americas such as wheat, rice, barley, and oats thrived and reshaped the landscape.
The most devistating and tragic impact of the Columbian Exchange was the effects of disease. Europeans brought diseases such as smallpox and measles which led to the death of millions of Native Americans in the years following Columbus's arrival in the new world. Simple diseases such as influenza had the potential of wiping out entire tribes who had no immunity nor medicine to protect themselves. It is estimated that diseases brought by Europeans may have killed as much as 90% of Native peoples. By the time conquistadors landed to invade, there were few able-bodied men able to fight back. Within a generation the great societies and cultures of the Americas were decimated, with the survivors forced to assimilate to Europeans laws and culture.
Capitalism & Mercantilism
One aspect of colonization is the growth of capitalism. Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership and the investment of resources, such as money, for profit. No longer were governments the sole owners of great wealth. Due to overseas colonization and trade, numerous merchants had created companies which became incredibly rich. Profits from these investments enabled merchants and traders to reinvest even more money in other enterprises to make even more money. As a result, business across Europe grew and flourished. The increase in economic activity led to an increase in the nations' money supply which brought inflation. The cost of goods across Europe rose leading to the need for higher profits and further investment.
During this time, the nations of Europea adopted a new economic policy known as mercantilism. The theory of mercantilism held that a country's power depended mainly on its wealth. As a result, the goal of every country was to accrue as much wealth as possible. According to this theory, a nation could increase its wealth in two ways. First, it could obtain as much gold and silver as possible. Second, it could establish a favorable balance of trade, in which it sold more goods than it bought. Mercantilism went hand in hand with colonization, for colonies played a vital role in producing raw materials that could not be found in the home country. By doing this, European states were able to keep wealth within its borders and not have to spend gold or silver on purchasing the materials needed for production within their own borders.
These new economic changes led to many changes in Europe. Individualism developed and a new middle class emerged. More than anything else, the economic revolution increased the wealth of European nations and their monarchs. The states of Europe quickly had become some of the most powerful on earth, surpassing the great states of the medieval Turkish and Chinese powers who once dwarfed them.
Suplemental Videos
Mercantilism
Capitalism
The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
Sugar plantations and tobacco farms required a large supply of workers to make them profitable for their owners. Initially, Europeans used Native Americans as a source of cheap labor. But millions of Native Americans died from the diseases brought through the Columbian Exchange. Therefore, Europeans turned to Africa for workers. This demand for cheap labor resulted in one of human history's greatest injustices: the slave trade.
Early African Slavery
Slavery had existed in Africa for centuries. In most regions, it was a relatively minor institution. The spread of Islam into Africa ushered in an increase in slavery and the slave trade. Muslim rulers in Africa justified enslavement with the Muslim belief that non-Muslim prisoners of war could be bought and sold as slaves. As a result, between 650 and 1600, Muslims transported about 17 million Africans to the Muslim lands of North Africa and Southwest Asia. In most African and Muslim societies these slaves had some legal rights and an opportunity for social mobility. In African societies, slaves could escape their bondage in numerous ways, including marrying into the family they served.
The Demand for Africans
The first Europeans to explore Africa were the Portuguese during the 1400s. Initially, Portuguese traders were more interested in trading for gold than for captured Africans. That changed with the colonization of the Americas, as natives began dying by the millions.
Europeans saw advantages in using Africans in the Americas. First, many Africans had been exposed to European diseases and had developed som immunity. Second, many Africans had experience in farming and could be taught plantation work. Third, Africans were less likely to escape because they did not know their way around the new land. Fourth, their skin color made it easier to catch them if they escaped and tried to live amongst the natives.
In time, the buying and selling of Africans, known as the Atlantic Slave Trade, became a massive enterprise. Between 1500 and 1600, nearly 300,000 Africans were transported to the Americas. During the next century, that number climbed to almost 1.3 million. By the time the slave trade ended around 1870, Europeans had imported about 10 million Africans to the Americas.
Triangular Trade
Africans transported to the Americas were part of a transatlantic trading network known as the Triangular Trade. Over one trade route, Europeans transported manufactured goods to the west coast of Africa. There, traders exchanged these goods for captured Africans. The Africans were then transported across the Atlantic and sold in the West Indies. Merchants bought sugar, coffee, and tobacco in the West Indies and British colonies and sailed to Europe with these products.
This trans-Atlantic trade network became a major component of the developing capitalist economies of Europe, ultimately leading to the development of the global economy based on manufacturing and trade. It also led to the cross-cultural dependence for raw materials and open markets to sell goods which is a central concern of the modern economy of the world today.
The Middle Passage
The voyage that brought captured Africans to the West Indies and later to North and South America was known as the middle passage. Because of the system of triangular trade, it was considered the middle leg. Sickening cruelty characterized this journey which treated slaves without mercy, stripping them of their humanity and treating them instead as cargo. In African ports, European traders packed Africans into the dark holds of large ships. On board, Africans endured whippings and beatings from merchants, as well as diseases that swept through the vessel. Countless Africans died from disease or physical abuse aboard the slave ships. Many others committed suicide by jumping overboard. Scholars estemate that roughly 20 percent of the Africans aboard each slave ship perished during the trip.
Consequences of the Slave Trade
The Atlantic slave trade had a profound impact on both Africa and the Americas. In Africa,numerous cultures lost generations of their fittest members- their young and able- to European traders and plantation owners. In addition, countless African families were torn apart. Many of them were never reunited. The slave trade devastated African societies in another way: by introducing guns into the continent. The economies of Africa became based on this trade which left the continent dependent on others and producers of very little. Following the establishment of the slave trade Africa no longer developed the great kingdoms as it had before, and have at the mercy of Europe ever since.
The General Crisis
The Thirty-Years War
The Protestant Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and his disciplined army of 23,000 shifted the tide of war in 1630. They drove the Hapsburg armies out of Northern Germany. However, Gustavus Adolphus was killed in battle in 1632. The French also intervened in the later stages of the war. Although France was predominantly Catholic, the French sided with the Protestants because they feared the growing power of the Hapsburg Empires. They did not want other rulers to have as much power as the French king and therefore aided the German and Swedish.
The war did great damage to Germany. Its population dropped from 20 million to about 16 million. Both trade and agriculture were disrupted, and Germany's economy was ruined. Germany had a long, difficult recovery from this devistation. That is a major reason it did not become a unified state until the late 1800s.
The final major war of relion occurred in Germany from 1618 to 1648. The war can be divided into two main phases: the phase of Hapsburg triumps and the phase of Hapsburg defeats. During the first 12 years, Hapsburg armies from Spain and Austria crushed the troops hired by Protestant princes and threatened to force all of Germany to reunite with the Catholic Church. The Hapsburgs succeeded in putting down the Czech uprising and defeated the German Protestants who had supported the Czechs. The Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II paid his army of 125,000 men by allowing them to plunder, or rob, German villages. His army destroyed everything in its path.
The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the war. The treaty had these important consequences:
-
Weakened the Hapsburg states of Spain and Austria;
-
Strengthened France by awarding it German territory;
-
Made German Princes independent of the Holy Roman Emperor;
-
Ended religious wars in Europe;
-
Introduced a new method of peace negotiation whereby all participants meet to settle the problems of a war and decide the terms of peace. This method is still used today.
The treaty thus abandoned the idea of a Catholic empire tht would rule most of Europe. It recognized Europe as a group of equal, independent states. This marked the beginning of the modern state system and was the most important result of the Thirty Years' War. The Wars of Religion had devistated all of Europe, but in the process created the modern framework for how nations and states were organized. For some, religion became a central identifying characteristic, for others a facet which was not central to the collective identity. Regardless of the outcome of the war, the major states of Europe had emerged and the way they related to one another had become formalized. The true winners of the Wars of Religion were the kings of Europe, who had asserted themselves and now superceded the power of the pope and the Church. Monarchs, Catholic and Protestant alike, were now the true powers of the continent. They were free to shape their state in their own image and moved to create absolute monarchies.
Suplemental Videos
Feature History: The 30 Years War
(Beware Foul Language)
